Schopenhauers Farbenlehre steht in der Nachfolge Goethes. Von Goethe selbst in dessen Gedankengebäude eingeführt, beginnt dessen Schüler Schopenhauer allerdings nur zu bald – und zum Verdruss seines Lehrmeisters – den Goetheschen Ansatz in einem Punkt konsequent weiterzuverfolgen.

In his study on 'schelling's and hegel's verhaltnis zur naturwissenschaft' of 1844 m j schleiden, one of the leading biologists of that time, opposed the speculative idealism. his work marks the change of the german biology to a science that is founded on materialistic assumptions. it gives the essence of a discussion that is not only interesting in a historical perspective but accentuated an ongoing controversy.

Was wir sehen, bestimmt sich durch das, was wir im Kopf haben. Dies ist aber nicht einfach Resultat unserer Gene, sondern immer auch Ausfluss unserer Kultur: Die 'Neuronale Ästhetik' erschliesst die hier nötige Abstimmung von Natur- und Kulturgeschichte. Olaf Breidbach geht es um eine neue Phänomenologie, die Natur und Kultur nicht in zwei Bereiche teilt, denkt oder die eine auf die andere Seite zurück bricht. Unsere Art und Weise die Dinge zu sehen, wird durch die Kultivierung bestimmt, die (...) eben auch unseren Kopf ausrichtet. Das Neuronale ist nicht einfach nur Effekt einer Evolution, es ist Reflex einer Kultur und in diesem Doppelsinne als Einheit zu deuten. Es geht hier um eine neue integrative Phänomenologie, die unser Erfahren auf unsere Körperlichkeit zurück bindet, diesen Körper aber immer auch in seiner Kultur und damit seine über die blosse Natur hinausweisende Geschichte begreift. (shrink)

Although Lorenz Oken is a classic example of Naturphilosophie as applied to biology, his views have been imperfectly understood. He is best viewed as a follower of Schelling who consistently attempted to apply Schelling's ideas to biological data. His version of Naturphilosophie, however, was strongly influenced by older pseudoscience traditions, especially alchemy and numerology as they had been presented by Robert Fludd, whose works were current in Jena and available to him. According to those influences, parts of Oken's philosophical conception (...) were communicable even in a non-idealistic scientific culture, for example in Paris, where Oken met Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Geoffroy however was embedded in a French intellectual tradition, and the correspondence between his views and those of Oken was only superficial. The English anatomist Richard Owen attempted to incorporate the views of Oken and Geoffroy within his own, idiosyncratic system. Although Darwin knew of Oken's ideas, it was Geoffroy who really affected his evolutionary biology, and any influence of Oken must have been attenuated to the point of triviality. (shrink)

Microphotography was one of the earliest applications of photography in science: The first monograph on tissue organization illustrated with microphotographs was published in 1845. In the 1860s, a large number of introductions to scientific microphotography were published by anatomists. They argued that microphotography was a means of documenting the results of microscopic analysis, uncontaminated by the subjectivity of the observer. In the early decades of the 19th century, before the general acceptance of cell theory, such a technique was of special (...) importance, as no criteria were available to distinguish between important and superficial characters in the description of tissue microstructures. Microphotography was praised as the method of choice for documenting the scientific observations of microscopic material. Some of the microphotographic practices described in these early manuals, however, did not conform with the idea of a purely mechanical process of documentation. The authors of these manuals saw photography not as a technique which produced artifacts, but as a complete and reliable substitute for the original preparations. Thus, according to these authors, the artificial world of photography was seen as the actual representation of the microworld. Consequently, they tried to understand the microcosm by analyzing photographs instead of the microscopic preparation themselves. Such attitudes discredited the use of microphotography in the sciences. Consequently, the definitive breakthrough of scientific microphotography was delayed until the 1880s and was largely due to the efforts of Robert Koch, who made microphotography a central tool of bacteriology. (shrink)

The paper describes the first attempts of biological electron microphotography. It starts with a description of the early use of electron microscopy in biology, showing that electron microscopy was used as an extension of former light microscopical studies. Thus, the pictures produced by electron microscopy are interpreted as describing the micro-texture of those structures already seen in light microscopy. That was done irrespective from the specific problems of tissue preparation for electron microscopy. The use of photography in electron microscopy is (...) discussed in more detail. It is shown that in electron microscopy, the microphotography provides the data base for the observing scientist, not the preparation itself which is usually destroyed or damaged during observation in the electron microscope. Thus, biological electron microscopy can be described to be a real image science. (shrink)

The controversy of neuroanatomy on the principal structure of the nervous systems, which took place at the end of the nineteenth century, is described. Two groups of scientists are identified: one that favoured the idea of a discrete cellular organization of the nervous tissue, and one that favoured a syncytial organization. These two interpretations arose from different histological techniques that produced conflicting pictures of the organization of the nervous tissue. In an experimental reexamination of the techniques used at the end (...) of the nineteenth century, the present study concerns the impact of these different histological procedures on the controversy about the principle nature of the nervous tissue. This controversy could not be resolved by neuroanatomy itself until the 1950s when electron microscopy was introduced into neurobiology. Thus, in a critical period of the conceptual development of neurosciences, neuroanatomy failed to establish a proper base for an interpretation of the functional morphology of nervous tissues. (shrink)

Concepts of enlightenment were developed and transmitted to modern times. From that perspective, one has to understand classic and romanticism as a kind of culmination of European enlightenment, thereby describing romanticisms as a European phenomenon. Here, our ideas of freedom, personality and governance, the concept of science, the idea of rationality and, in particular, the disciplinarily defined rationality originated. It is the Kantian perspective, by which we now look on rationality. It is the Hegelian idea of system and coherence, we (...) test our hypothesis with, It is Baumgarten’s aesthetics, and it is the way, Fichte argued about the principle consequences of liberalization in French revolution that came into our discussions about jurisdiction, personal liberty, state and governance. And it is that new idea of an expert system driven rationality that we are accustomed to, in between. This form of rationality originated at the end of the 18th century and has been transferred in its essential methodological characteristics to our time. (shrink)

Following the concept of internal representations, signal processing in a neuronal system has to be evaluated exclusively on the basis of internal system characteristics. Thus, this approach omits the external observer as a control function for sensory integration. Instead, the configuration of the system and its computational performance are the effects of endogeneous factors. Such self-referential operation is due to a strictly local computation in a network. Thereby, computations follow a set of rules that constitutes the emergent behaviour of the (...) system. Because these rules can be demonstrated to correspond to a "logic" intrinsic to the system, it can be shown that the concept of internal representation provides the basis for neurosemantics. (shrink)

Strategische Kommunikation zielt mit ihren kontingenten Wirklichkeitsbeschreibungen seit jeher auf gesellschaftliche Wahrheitsmodelle. Wie häufig gesellschaftliche Wahrheitsmodelle auf strategische Kommunikationsbemühungen zurückgehen, auf Unwahrhaftigkeit beruhen und damit zumindest zeitweise zu strategischen Wahrheiten werden, zeigen eindrucksvoll zwischenzeitlich geglaubte Wahrheiten, die sich als Lüge entpuppt haben: von Walter Ulbrichts "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten" über Hitlers Tagebücher bis hin zu den Massenvernichtungswaffen im Irak. Die erfolgreichen Kampagnen der Brexiteers und von Donald Trump 2016 haben diesem Thema zu neuer und bislang ungeahnter (...) Aufmerksamkeit verholfen. Während die Themen Desinformation und postfaktische Gesellschaft die Journalismus-, politische Kommunikations- und Medienethikforschung aktuell zu dominieren scheinen, ist das Schweigen der deutschsprachigen und internationalen PR- und Organisationskommunikationsforschung auffällig. Dies ist umso bemerkenswerter, weil die PR-Wissenschaft in der Vergangenheit immer wieder versucht hat, ihren Gegenstand zu schärfen, indem sie sich am Begriff der Propaganda abgearbeitet hat. Daraus müsste eigentlich eine Affinität für das Thema Desinformation resultieren. Aber genau das Gegenteil ist offensichtlich der Fall: Hat sich die PR-Wissenschaft gerade deshalb nicht mit Desinformation beschäftigt, weil sie sich so dezidiert von Propaganda und darin eingeschlossenen desinformierenden und manipulativen Techniken abgrenzen will? Was sind die Gründe hierfür? Glauben wir, bereits alles zum Thema gesagt zu haben? Liegt dies daran, dass sich die PR- und Organisationskommunikationsforschung seit jeher vor allem für Unternehmen und weniger für politische und Non-Profit-Organisationen interessiert? Oder fühlen wir uns hier schlicht und ergreifend nicht zuständig? Es scheint offenkundig höchste Zeit zu sein, sich wieder eingehend mit Fragen der Desinformation aus der Perspektive der strategischen Kommunikationsforschung zu befassen. Die Beiträge des Tagungsbandes fokussieren hierzu auf neue theoretische Perspektiven, normative Bewertungen und empirische Befunde. (shrink)

The ‚Naturforschende Gesellschaft’︁, founded in 1793, proved instrumental for the development of science at the University of Jena around 1800. Its library can be considered as one of its most important facilities provided for research and for the education of students. Since this library has been preserved almost without losses, we can ask whether this library served the purpose of a research library in the newly established field of ‚science’︁. In consequence, the role of scientific societies and the genesis of (...) specialised libraries in the area of science can be investigated in an exemplary case, with implications for the concept of scientific research around 1800. (shrink)

The geometric shapes and natural forms, captured with exceptional precision in Ernst Haeckel's prints, still influence artists and designers to this day. This volume highlights the research and findings of this natural scientist. Powerful modern microscopes have confirmed the accuracy of Haeckel's prints, which even in their day, became world famous. Haeckel's portfolio, first published between 1899 and 1904 in separate installments, is described in the opening essays. The plates illustrate Haeckel's fundamental monistic notion of the "unity of all living (...) things" and the wide variety of forms are executed with utmost delicacy. Incipient microscopic organisms are juxtaposed with highly developed plants and animals. The pages, ordered according to geometric and "constructive" aspects, document the oness of the world in its most diversified forms. This collection of plates was not only well-received by scientists, but by artists and architects as well. Rene Binet, a pioneer of glass and iron constructions, Emile Galle, a renowned Art Nouveau designer, and the photographer Karl Blossfeld all make explicit reference to Haeckel in their work. (shrink)

In vielen Debatten werden spezifische Vorstellungen über die Geschichte, Kultur oder Werteordnung ›Europas‹ für die Erklärung oder Legitimierung politischer Verhältnisse und Projekte herangezogen. Die vorliegende Studie prüft die Berechtigung solcher Konstruktionen, indem sie der Frage nachgeht, seit wann und warum überhaupt von ›Europa‹ gesprochen wird. Die Analyse der historischen Semantik des Europabegriffs muss, um identitätspolitisch motivierte Anachronismen zu vermeiden, seine materiellen, kulturellen und diskursiven Konstitutionsbedingungen einbeziehen. ›Europa‹ verliert dadurch seinen transhistorischen Charakter, den es erhält, wenn man ihm im Bestreben, es (...) als politische und kulturelle Entität auszuzeichnen und fungibel zu machen, eine mythische Geschichte und Struktur zuschreibt. Demgegenüber zeigt die kritische Analyse: Als politische und kulturelle ›Idee‹ wie als gelebte und erfahrene ›Wirklichkeit‹ gründet Europa nicht in Antike oder Mittelalter, sondern ist das Produkt der Entstehung der modernen Welt seit der frühen Neuzeit. (shrink)

ZUSAMMENFASSUNGDie Kirche sieht sich in der Zuständigkeit für die Verwaltung des Transzendenten. Gestützt auf die Genesis erhebt sie aber auch den Erklärungsanspruch für die Entstehung der irdischen Welt. Jedoch weicht sie hier mehr und mehr der naturwissenschaftlichen Konkurrenz. Selbst die Evolutionstheorie wird heute nicht mehr rundweg abgelehnt. Die Neubewertung des Realitäts-begriffs und der Naturgesetze durch die evolutionäre Erkenntnistheorie zeigt jedoch, dass auch der Erklärungsanspruch empirischer Weltbilder überdacht werden muss, was nicht ohne Einfluss auf das Verhältnis zu den religiösen Weltbildern bleibt.Viel (...) gravierender jedoch kann die Tendenz werden, dass sich die Auseinandersetzung zwischen Religion und Wissenschaften immer mehr von den Naturwissenschaften zu den Sozialwissenschaften verlagert. Probleme der physischen Naturbeherrschung sind heute sehr viel weiter gehend gelöst als die Probleme der sozialen Umwelt. Schon heute ist das zentrale Paradigma der Menschheit die Bewältigung sozialer Probleme. Die Beherrschung des Klimas zum Beispiel, von der Sache her ein physisches Problem, wird mehr und mehr zum sozialen Problem. Wollen die Kirchen hier als gestaltende Kraft mithalten, müssen sie sich von der auf die Bibel gestützten Angebotsorientierung fortentwickeln zu der Nachfrageorientierung politischer Parteien und anderer Sozialorganisationen. Das könnte sich zur Bedrohung der theologischen Bedeutung der Kirchen entwickeln. SUMMARYThe church sees itself as the general administrator of the transcendent. But at the same time, based on the genesis, it claims as well the competence to explain the creation of the physical world. Here, however, it recoils more and more from the natural sciences. Even the idea of biological evolution is no longer flatly rejected. However, the reinterpretation of the natural laws and the notion of reality within the framework of the evolutionary epistemology show that the explanatory power of the natural sciences is no longer unquestionable. This, no doubt, has consequences for the relationship of natural and transcendental sciences.Of far more impact, however, can be the trend that the dispute between religion and sciences is shifting from the nature sciences towards the social sciences. Problems we have with our natural environment and to be solved by nature sciences are replaced more and more by problems we have with our social environment and to be solved by the social sciences. Already nowadays the central paradigm of mankind is the solution of social problems. Mastering the climate, for example, though primarily a physical problem becomes more and more a social subject. If the churches want to keep up here they have to shift from the supply orientation as provided by the bible towards the demand orientation presented by political and other social organisations. This could begin to threaten the theological importance of the churches. (shrink)